Isaias

Among the writers whom the Hebrew Bible styles the "Latter Prophets" foremost

stands "Isaias, the holy prophet . . . the great prophet, and faithful in the sight of

God" (Ecclus., xlviii, 23-25).

I. LIFE

The name Isaias signifies "Yahweh is salvation". It assumes two different forms

in the Hebrew Bible: for in the text of the Book of Isaias and in the historical

writings of the Old Testament, for example in IV Kings, xix, 2; II Par., xxvi, 22;

xxxii, 20, 32, it is read Yeshá`yahu, whereas the collection of the Prophet's

utterances is entitled Yeshá`yah, in Greek `Esaías, and in Latin usually Isaias,

but sometimes Esaias. Four other persons of the same name are mentioned in

the Old Testament (I Esd., viii, 7; viii, 19; II Esd., xi, 7; I Par., xxvi, 25); while the

names Jesaia (I Par., xxv, 15), Jeseias (I Par., iii, 21; xxv, 3) may be regarded as

mere variants. From the Prophet himself (i, 1; ii, 1) we learn that he was the son

of Amos. Owing to the similarity between Latin and Greek forms of this name

and that of the Shepherd-Prophet of Thecue, some Fathers mistook the Prophet

Amos for the father of Isaias. St. Jerome in the preface to his "Commentary on

Amos" (P.L., XXV, 989) points out this error. Of Isaias's ancestry we know

nothing; but several passages of his prophecies (iii, 1-17, 24; iv, 1; viii, 2; xxxi,

16) lead us to believe that he belonged to one of the best families of Jerusalem.

A Jewish tradition recorded in the Talmud (Tr. Megilla, 10b.) held him to be a

nephew of King Amasias. As to the exact time of the Prophet's birth we lack

definite data; yet he is believed to have been about twenty years of age when he

began his public ministry. He was a citizen, perhaps a native, of Jerusalem. His

writings give unmistakable signs of high culture. From his prophecies (vii and viii)

we learn that he married a woman whom he styles "the prophetess" and that he

had two sons, She`arYashub and Mahershalalhashbaz. Nothing whatever

indicates that he was twice married as some fancy on the gratuitous and

indefensible supposition that the `almah of vii, 14, was his wife.

The prophetical ministry of Isaias lasted wellnigh half a century, from the closing

year of Ozias, King of Juda, possibly up to that of Manasses. This period was

one of great prophetical activity. Israel and Juda indeed were in sore need of

guidance. After the death of Jeroboam II revolution followed upon revolution and

the northern kingdom had sunk rapidly into an abject vassalage to the Assyrians.

The petty nations of the West, however, recovering from the severe blows

received in the beginning of the eighth century, were again manifesting

aspirations of independence. Soon Theglathphalasar III marched his armies

towards Syria; heavy tributes were levied and utter ruin threatened on those who

would show any hesitation to pay. In 725 Osee, the last King of Samaria, fell

miserably under the onslaught of Salmanasar IV, and three years later Samaria

succumbed to the hands of the Assyrians. In the meantime the Kingdom of Juda

hardly fared better. A long period of peace had enervated characters, and the

young, inexperienced, and unprincipled Achaz was no match for the

SyroIsraelite coalition which confronted him. Panicstricken he, in spite of the

remonstrances of Isaias, resolved to appeal to Theglathphalasar. The help of

Assyria was secured, but the independence of Juda was thereby practically

forfeited. In order to explain clearly the political situation to which so many

allusions are made in Isaias's writings there is here subjoined a brief

chronological sketch of the period: 745, Theglathphalasar III, king of Assyria;

Azarias (A. V. Uzziah), of Juda; Manahem (A. V. Menahem) of Samaria; and

Sua of Egypt; 740, death of Azarias; Joatham (A. V. Jotham), king of Juda;

capture of Arphad (A. V. Arpad) by Theglathphalasar III (Is., x, 9); 738, campaign

of Theglathphalasar against Syria; capture of Calano (A. V. Calno) and Emath (A.

V. Hamath); heavy tribute imposed upon Manahem (IV Kings, xv, 19-20);

victorious wars of Joatham against the Ammonites (II Par., xxvii, 4-6); 736,

Manahem succeeded by Phaceia (A. V. Pekahiah); 735, Joatham succeeded by

Achaz (IV Kings, xvi, 1); Phaceia replaced by Phacee (A. V. Pekah), son of

Remelia (A. V. Remaliah), one of his captains; Jerusalem besieged by Phacee in

alliance with Rasin (A. V. Rezin), king of Syria (IV Kings xvi, 5; Is., vii, 1, 2); 734,

Theglathphalasar, replying to Achaz' request for aid, marches against Syria and

Israel, takes several cities of North and East Israel (IV Kings, xv, 29), and

banishes their inhabitants; the Assyrian allies devastate part of the territory of

Juda and Jerusalem; Phacee slain during a revolution in Samaria and succeeded

by Osee (A. V. Hoshea); 733, unsuccessful expeditions of Achaz against Edom

(II Par., xxviii, 17) and the Philistines (20); 732, campaign of Theglathphalasar

against Damascus; Rasin besieged in his capital, captured, and slain; Achaz

goes to Damascus to pay homage to the Assyrian ruler (IV Kings, xvi, 10-19);

727, death of Achaz; accession of Ezechias (IV Kings, xviii, 1); in Assyria

Salmanasar IV succeeds Theglathphalasar III, 726, campaign of Salmanasar

against Osee (IV Kings, xvii, 3); 725, Osee makes alliance with Sua, king of

Egypt (IV Kings, xvii, 4); second campaign of Salmanasar IV, resulting in the

capture and deportation of Osee (IV Kings, xvii, 4); beginning of the siege of

Samaria; 722, Sargon succeeds Salmanasar IV in Assyria; capture of Samaria

by Sargon; 720, defeat of Egyptian army at Raphia by Sargon; 717, Charcamis,

the Hittite stronghold on the Euphrates, falls into the hands of Sargon (Is, x, 8);

713, sickness of Ezechias (IV Kings, xx, 1-11; Is, xxxviii); embassy from

Merodach Baladan to Ezechias (IV Kings, xx, 12-13; Is., xxxix); 711, invasion of

Western Palestine by Sargon; siege and capture of Azotus (A. V. Ashdod; Is.,

xx); 709, Sargon defeats Merodach Baladan, seizes Babylon, and assumes title

of king of Babylon; 705, death of Sargon; accession of Sennacherib; 701,

expedition of Sennacherib against Egypt; defeat of latter at Elteqeh; capture of

Accaron (A. V. Ekron); siege of Lachis; Ezechias's embasy; the conditions laid

down by Sennacherib being found too hard the king of Juda prepares to resist the

Assyrians; destruction of part of the Assyrian army; hurried retreat of the rest (IV

Kings, xviii; Is., xxxvi, xxxvii); 698, Ezechias is succeeded by his son

Manasses. The wars of the ninth century and the peaceful security following

them produced their effects in the latter part of the next century. Cities sprang

up; new pursuits, although affording opportunities of easy wealth, brought about

also an increase of poverty. The contrast between class and class became daily

more marked, and the poor were oppressed by the rich with the connivance of

the judges. A social state founded on iniquity is doomed. But as Israel's social

corruption was greater than Juda's, Israel was expected to succumb first. Greater

likewise was her religious corruption. Not only did idolatrous worship prevail there

to the end, but we know from Osee what gross abuses and shameful practices

obtained in Samaria and throughout the kingdom, whereas the religion of the

people of Juda on the whole seems to have been a little better. We know,

however, as regards these, that at the very time of Isaias certain forms of

idolatrous worship, like that of Nohestan and of Moloch, probably that also of

Tammur and of the "host of heaven", were going on in the open or in secret.

Commentators are at variance as to when Isaias was called to the prophetical

office. Some think that previous to the vision related in vi, 1, he had received

communications from heaven. St. Jerome in his commentary on the passage

holds that chapters i-v ought to be attributed to the last years of King Ozias, then

ch. vi would commence a new series begun in the year of the death of that prince

(740 B.C.; P.L., XXIV, 91; cf. St. Gregory Nazianzen, Orat. ix; P.G., XXXV, 820). It

is more commonly held, however, that ch. vi refers to the first calling of the

Prophet; St. Jerome himself, in a letter to Pope Damasus seems to adopt this

view (P. L., XXII, 371; cf. Hesychius "In Is.", P.G. XCIII, 1372), and St. John

Chrysostom, commenting upon Is., vi, 5, very aptly contrasts the promptness of

the Prophet with the tergiversations of Moses and Jeremias. On the other hand,

since no prophecies appear to be later than 701 B.C., it is doubtful if Isaias saw

the reign of Manasses at all; still a very old and widespread tradition, echoed by

the Mishna (Tr. Yebamoth, 49b; cf. Sanhedr., 103b), has it that the Prophet

survived Ezechias and was slain in the persecution of Manasses (IV Kings, xxi,

16). This prince had him convicted of blasphemy, because he had dared say: "I

saw the Lord sitting upon a throne" (vi, 1), a pretension in conflict with God's own

assertion in Exod., xxxiii, 20: "Man shall not see me and live". He was accused,

moreover, of having predicted the ruin of Jerusalem and called the holy city and

the people of Juda by the accursed names of Sodom and Gomorrah. According

to the "Ascension of Isaias", the Prophet's martyrdom consisted in being sawed

asunder. Tradition shows this to have been unhesitatingly believed. The Targum

on IV Kings, xxi, 6, admits it; it is preserved in two treatises of the Talmud

(Yebamoth, 49b; Sanhedr., 103b); St. Justin (Dial. c. Tryph., cxx), and many of

the Fathers adopted it, taking as unmistakable allusions to Isaias those words of

the Heb., xi, 37, "they (the ancients) were cut asunder" (cf. Tertullian, "De

patient.", xiv; P.L., I, 1270; Orig., "In Is., Hom." I, 5, P.G., XIII, 223; "In Matt.", x,

18, P.G., XIII, 882; "In Matt.", Ser. 28, P.G., XIII, 1637; "Epist. ad Jul. Afr.", ix,

P.G., XI, 65; St. Jerome, "In Is.", lvii, 1, P.L., XXIV, 546-548; etc.). However, little

trust should be put in the strange details mentioned in the "De Vit. Prophet." of

pseudoEpiphanius (P.G., XLIII, 397, 419). The date of the Prophet's demise is

not known. The Roman Martyrology commemorates Isaias on 6 July. His tomb is

believed to have been in Paneas in Northern Palestine, whence his relics were

taken to Constantinople in A.D. 442.

The literary activity of Isaias is attested by the canonical book which bears his

name; moreover allusion is made in II Par., xxvi, 22, to "Acts of Ozias first and

last . . . written by Isaias, the son of Amos, the prophet". Another passage of the

same book informs us that "the rest of the acts of Ezechias and his mercies, are

written in the Vision of Isaias, son of Amos, the prophet", in the Book of the

Kings of Juda and Israel. Such at least is the reading of the Massoretic Bible, but

its text here, if we may judge from the variants of the Greek and St. Jerome, is

somewhat corrupt. Most commentators who believe the passage to be authentic

think that the writer refers to Is., xxxvi-xxxix. We must finally mention the

"Ascension of Isaias", at one time attributed to the Prophet, but never admitted

into the Canon.

II. THE BOOK OF ISAIAS

The canonical Book of Isaias is made up of two distinct collections of

discourses, the one (chapters 1-35) called sometimes the "First Isaias"; the

other (chapters 40-66) styled by many modern critics the "Deutero- (or Second)

Isaias"; between these two comes a stretch of historical narrative; some authors,

as Michaelis and Hengstenberg, holding with St. Jerome that the prophecies are

placed in chronological order; others, like Vitringa and Jahn, in a logical order;

others finally, like Gesenius, Delitzsch, Keil, think the actual order is partly

logical and partly chronological. No less disagreement prevails on the question of

the collector. Those who believe that Isaias is the author of all the prophecies

contained in the book generally fix upon the Prophet himself. But for the critics

who question the genuineness of some of the parts, the compilation is by a late

and unknown collector. It would be well, however, before suggesting a solution to

analyse cursorily the contents.

First Isaias

In the first collection (cc. i-xxxv) there seems to be a grouping of the discourses

according to their subjectmatter: (1) cc. i-xii, oracles dealing with Juda and

Israel; (2) cc. xiii-xxiii, prophecies concerning (chiefly) foreign nations; (3) cc.

xxiv-xxvii, an apocalypse; (4) cc. xxviii-xxxiii, discourses on the relations of Juda

to Assyria; (5) cc. xxxiv-xxxv, future of Edom and Israel.

First section

In the first group (i-xii) we may distinguish separate oracles. Ch. i arraigns

Jerusalem for her ingratitude and unfaithfulness; severe chastisements have

proved unavailing; yet forgiveness can be secured by a true change of life. The

ravaging of Juda points to either the time of the SyroEphraimite coalition (735) or

the Assyrian invasion (701). Ch. ii threatens judgment upon pride and seems to

be one of the earliest of the Prophet's utterances. It is followed (iii-iv) by a severe

arraignment of the nation's rulers for their injustice and a lampoon against the

women of Sion for their wanton luxury. The beautiful apologue of the vineyard

serves as a preface to the announcement of the punishment due to the chief

social disorders. These seem to point to the last days of Joatham, or the very

beginning of the reign of Achaz (from 736-735 B.C.). The next chapter (vi), dated in

the year of the death of Ozias (740), narrates the calling of the Prophet. With vii

opens a series of utterances not inappropriately called "the Book of Emmanuel";

it is made up of prophecies bearing on the SyroEphraimite war, and ends in a

glowing description (an independent oracle?) of what the country will be under a

future sovereign (ix, 1-6). Ch. ix, 7-x, 4, in five strophes announces that Israel is

foredoomed to utter ruin; the allusion to rivalries between Ephraim and Manasses

possibly has to do with the revolutions which followed the death of Jeroboam II; in

this case the prophecy might date some time between 743-734. Much later is

the prophecy against Assur (x, 5-34), later than the capture of Arshad (740),

Calano (738), or Charcamis (717). The historical situation therein described

suggests the time of Sennacherib's invasion (about 702 or 701 B.C.). Ch. xi

depicts the happy reign to be of the ideal king, and a hymn of thanksgiving and

praise (xii) closes this first division.

Second section

The first "burden" is aimed at Babylon (viii, 1-xiv, 23). The situation presupposed

by the Prophet is that of the Exile; a fact that inclines some to date it shortly

before 549, against others who hold it was written on the death of Sargon (705).

Ch. xiv, 24-27, foretelling the overthrow of the Assyrian army on the mountains of

Juda, and regarded by some as a misplaced part of the prophecy against Assur

(x, 5-34), belongs no doubt to the period of Sennacherib's campaign. The next

passage (xiv, 28-32) was occasioned by the death of some foe of the Philistines:

the names of Achaz (728), Theglathphalasar III (727), and Sargon (705) have

been suggested, the last appearing more probable. Chapters xv-xvi, "the burden

of Moab", is regarded by many as referring to the reign of Jeroboam II, King of

Israel (787-746); its date is conjectural. The ensuing "burden of Damascus" (xvii,

1-11), directed against the Kingdom of Israel as well, should be assigned to

about 735 B.C. Here follows a short utterance on Ethiopia (prob. 702 or 701). Next

comes the remarkable prophecy about Egypt (xix), the interest of which cannot

but be enhanced by the recent discoveries at Elephantine (vv. 18, 19). The date

presents a difficulty, the time ranging, according to diverse opinions, from 720 to

672 B. C.. The oracle following (xx), against Egypt and Ethiopia, is ascribed to the

year in which Ashdod was besieged by the Assyrians (711). Just what capture of

Babylon is alluded to in "the burden of the desert of the sea" (xxi, 1-10) is not

easy to determine, for during the lifetime of Isaias Babylon was thrice besieged

and taken (710, 703, 696 B. C.). Independent critics seem inclined to see here a

description of the taking of Babylon in 528 B. C., the same description being the

work of an author living towards the close of the Babylonian Captivity. The two

short prophecies, one on Edom (Duma; xxi, 11-12) and one on Arabia (xxi,

13-17), give no clue as to when they were uttered. Ch. xxii, 1-14, is a rebuke

addressed to the inhabitants of Jerusalem. In the rest of the chapter Sobna

(Shebna) is the object of the Prophet's reproaches and threats (about 701 B.C.).

The section closes with the announcement of the ruin and the restoration of Tyre

(xxiii).

Third section

The third section of the first collection includes chapters xxiv-xxviii, sometimes

called "the Apocalypse of Isaias". In the first part (xxiv-xxvi, 29) the Prophet

announces for an undetermined future the judgment which shall precede the

kingdom of God (xxiv); then in symbolic terms he describes the happiness of the

good and the punishment of the wicked (xxv). This is followed by the hymn of the

elect (xxvi, 1-19). In the second part (xxvi, 20-xxvii) the Prophet depicts the

judgment hanging over Israel and its neighbours. The date is most unsettled

among modern critics, certain pasages being attributed to 107 B.C., others even

to a date lower than 79 B.C.. Let it be remarked, however, that both the ideas and

the language of these four chapters support the tradition attributing this

apocalypse to Isaias. The fourth division opens with a pronouncement of woe

against Ephraim (and perhaps Juda; xxviii, 1-8), written prior to 722 B.C.; the

historical situation implied in xxviii, 9-29, is a strong indication that this passage

was written about 702 B.C. To the same date belong xxix-xxxii, prophecies

concerned with the campaign of Sennacherib. This series fittingly concludes with

a triumphant hymn (xxxiii), the Prophet rejoicing in the deliverance of Jerusalem

(701). Chapters xxxi-xxxv, the last division, announce the devastation of Edom,

and the enjoyment of bountiful blessings by ransomed Israel. These two chapters

are thought by several modern critics to have been written during the captivity in

the sixth century. The foregoing analysis does not enable us to assert

indubitably that this first collection as such is the work of Isaias; yet as the

genuineness of almost all these prophecies cannot be seriously questioned, the

collection as a whole might still possibly be attributed to the last years of the

Prophet's life or shortly afterwards. If there really be passages reflecting a later

epoch, they found their way into the book in the course of time on account of

some analogy to the genuine writings of Isaias. Little need be said of

xxxvii-xxxix. The first two chapters narrate the demand made by

Sennacherib–the surrender of Jerusalem, and the fulfillment of Isaias's

predictions of its deliverance; xxxviii tells of Ezechias's illness, cure, and song of

thanksgiving; lastly xxxix tells of the embassy sent by Merodach Baladan and

the Prophet's reproof of Ezechias.

Second Isaias

The second collection (xl-lvi) deals throughout with Israel's restoration from the

Babylonian exile. The main lines of the division as proposed by the Jesuit

Condamine are as follows: a first section is concerned with the mission and work

of Cyrus; it is made up of five pieces: (a) xl-xli: calling of Cyrus to be Yahweh's

instrument in the restoration of Israel; (b) xlii, 8-xliv, 5: Israel's deliverance from

exile; (c) xliv, 6-xlvi, 12: Cyrus shall free Israel and allow Jerusalem to be built;

(d) xlvii: ruin of Babylon; (e) xlviii: past dealings of God with his people are an

earnest for the future. Next to be taken up is another group of utterances, styled

by German scholars "EbedJahwehLieder"; it is made up of xlix-lv (to which xlii,

1-7, should be joined) together with lx-lxii. In this section we hear of the calling of

Yahweh's servant (xlix, 1-li, 16); then of Israel's glorious homecoming (li, 17-lii,

12); afterwards is described the servant of Yahweh ransoming his people by his

sufferings and death (xlii, 1-7; lii, 13-15; liii, 1-12); then follows a glowing vision of

the new Jerusalem (liv, 1-lv, 13, and lx, 1-lxii, 12). Ch. lvi, 1-8, develops this idea,

that all the upright of heart, no matter what their former legal status, will be

admitted to Yahweh's new people. In lvi, 9-lvii, the Prophet inveighs against the

idolatry and immorality so rife among the Jews; the sham piety with which their

fasts were observed (lvii). In lix the Prophet represents the people confessing

their chief sins; this humble acknowledgment of their guilt prompts Yahweh to

stoop to those who have "turned from rebellion". A dramatic description of God's

vengeance (lxiii, 1-7) is followed by a prayer for mercy (lxiii, 7-lxiv, 11), and the

book closes upon the picture of the punishment of the wicked and the happines

of the good. Many perplexing questions are raised by the exegesis of the

"Second Isaias". The "EbedJahwehLieder", in particular, suggest many

difficulties. Who is this "servant of Yahweh"? Does the title apply to the same

person throughout the ten chapters? Had the writer in view some historical

personage of past ages, or one belonging to his own time, or the Messias to

come, or even some ideal person? Most commentators see in the "servant of

Yahweh" an individual. But is that individual one of the great historical figures of

Israel? No satisfactory answer has been given. The names of Moses, David,

Ozias, Ezechias, Isaias, Jeremias, Josias, Zorobabel, Jechonias, and Eleazar

have all been suggested as being the person. Catholic exegesis has always

pointed out the fact that all the features of the "servant of Yahweh" found their

complete realization in the person of Our Lord Jesus Christ. He therefore should

be regarded as the one individual described by the Prophet. The "Second Isaias"

gives rise to other more critical and less important problems. With the exception

of one or two passages, the point of view throughout this section is that of the

Babylonian Captivity; there is an unmistakable difference between the style of

these twentyseven chapters and that of the "First Isaias"; moreover, the

theological ideas of xl-lxvi show a decided advance on those found in the first

thirtynine chapters. If this be true, does it not follow that xl-lxvi are not by the

same author as the prophecies of the first collection, and may there not be good

grounds for attributing the authorship of these chapters to a "second Isaias" living

towards the close of the Babylonian Captivity? Such is the contention of most of

the modern nonCatholic scholars.

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